Federal Work Study

сокр. FWS гос. упр., обр., амер. федеральная программа "Работа и учеба"* (федеральная вузовская программа частичного трудоустройства нуждающихся студентов на время обучения; студенты, получившие грант по данной программе, как правило, работают в сфере муниципальных услуг или на должностях, связанных с их будущей специальностью)

упр. "Федеральные студенческие стипендии" (группа программ Министерства образования США по поддержке малообеспеченных студентов; также сами стипендии, получаемые по этим программам)

гос. упр., обр. амер. "программа, реализуемая на уровне вуза"* (программа помощи нуждающимся студентам, которая осуществляется на базе вузов, т. е. фиксированную сумму, передаваемую государством вузу по одной из таких программ, университет или колледж распределяет между нуждающимися студентами самостоятельно)

1) эк. тр., гос. упр., амер. сокр. от Federal Wage System

2) гос. упр., обр., амер. сокр. от Federal Work Study

1) Американизм: Federal Wage System, Federal Work Study

2) Спорт: Fight With Saws

3) Военный термин: Fighter Weapons School, Flight Weapon Simulator, fighter weapons squadron, fixed wireless station, flexible weapon system, flight watch specialist

4) Техника: feed water supply, feed water system, filter wedge spectrometer, finance system

5) Телекоммуникации: Fixed Wireless Service

6) Сокращение: Fighter Weapons School (USAF)

7) Нефть: full well stream

8) Геофизика: полноволновой акустический каротаж, FWA

9) Автоматика: finances system

10) Химическое оружие: Fish and Wildlife Service

11) Общественная организация: Franklin- Wright Settlements

12) НАСА: Flight Warning System

1) гос. фин. муниципальная [общественная\] служба ( занимается организацией и проведением общественных работ)

2) гос. фин. общественная работа [общественные работы\] (общественная работа по месту жительства, напр., уборка территорий, помощь в больницах и домах престарелых, поддержание общественного порядка, сбор средств для поддержки нуждающихся, организации и проведению местных праздников и т. п.; может применяться в порядке наказания за небольшие правонарушения, а также в качестве практических занятий для школьников и студентов)

ср тж Elementary and Secondary Education Act

- a new law comes into force

- application of the law

- banking law

- code of international law

- commercial law

- force of law

- freeze on the implementation of the law

- law and order

- law comes into force

- responsibility under international law

- restoration of the rule of law

- valid in law

- violation of international law

- wage-restraint law

SUBJECT AREA: Railways and locomotives

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Brotan, who was Chief Engineer of the main workshops of the Royal Austrian State Railways at Gmund, found that locomotive inner fireboxes of the usual type were both expensive, because the copper from which they were made had to be imported, and short-lived, because of corrosion resulting from the use of coal with high sulphur content. He designed a firebox of which the side and rear walls comprised rows of vertical watertubes, expanded at their lower ends into a tubular foundation ring and at the top into a longitudinal water/steam drum. This projected forward above the boiler barrel (which was of the usual firetube type, though of small diameter), to which it was connected. Copper plates were eliminated, as were firebox stays.

The first boiler to incorporate a Brotan firebox was built at Gmund under the inventor's supervision and replaced the earlier boiler of a 0−6−0 in 1901. The increased radiantly heated surface was found to produce a boiler with very good steaming qualities, while the working pressure too could be increased, with consequent fuel economies. Further locomotives in Austria and, experimentally, elsewhere were equipped with Brotan boilers.

Disadvantages of the boiler were the necessity of keeping the tubes clear of scale, and a degree of structural weakness. The Swiss engineer E. Deffner improved the latter aspect by eliminating the forward extension of the water/steam drum, replacing it with a large-diameter boiler barrel with the rear section of tapered wagon-top type so that the front of the water/steam drum could be joined directly to the rear tubeplate. The first locomotives to be fitted with this Brotan-Deffner boiler were two 4−6−0s for the Swiss Federal Railways in 1908 and showed very favourable results. However, steam locomotive development ceased in Switzerland a few years later in favour of electrification, but boilers of the Brotan-Deffner type and further developments of it were used in many other European countries, notably Hungary, where more than 1,000 were built. They were also used experimentally in the USA: for instance, Samuel Vauclain, as President of Baldwin Locomotive Works, sent his senior design engineer to study Hungarian experience and then had a high-powered 4−8−0 built with a watertube firebox. On stationary test this produced the very high figure of 4,515 ihp (3,370 kW), but further development work was frustrated by the trade depression commencing in 1929. In France, Gaston du Bousquet had obtained good results from experimental installations of Brotan-Deffner-type boilers, and incorporated one into one of his high-powered 4−6−4s of 1910. Experiments were terminated suddenly by his death, followed by the First World War, but thirty-five years later André Chapelon proposed using a watertube firebox to obtain the high pressure needed for a triple-expansion, high-powered, steam locomotive, development of which was overtaken by electrification.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Mies van der Rohe was the son of a stonemason and his early constructional training came from his father. As a young man he gained experience of the modern school from study of the architecture of the earlier leaders, notably Peter Behrens, Hendrik Berlage and Frank Lloyd Wright. He commenced architectural practice in 1913 and soon after the First World War was establishing his own version of modern architecture. His building materials were always of the highest quality, of marble, stone, glass and, especially, steel. He stripped his designs of all extraneous decoration: more than any of his contemporaries he followed the theme of elegance, functionalism and an ascetic concentration on essentials. He believed that architectural design should not look backwards but should reflect the contemporary achievement of advanced technology in both its construction and the materials used, and he began early in his career to act upon these beliefs. Typical was his early concrete and glass office building of 1922, after which, more importantly, came his designs for the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition of 1929. These designs included his famous Barcelona chair, made from chrome steel and leather in a geometrical design, one which has survived as a classic and is still in production. Another milestone was his Tugendhat House in Brno (1930), a long, low, rectilinear structure in glass and steel that set a pattern for many later buildings of this type. In 1930 Mies followed his colleagues as third Director of the Bauhaus, but due to the rise of National Socialism in Germany it was closed in 1933. He finally left Germany for the USA in 1937, and the following year he took up his post as Director of Architecture in Chicago at what is now known as the Illinois Institute of Technology and where he remained for twenty years. In America Mies van der Rohe continued to develop his work upon his original thesis. His buildings are always recognizable for their elegance, fine proportions, high-quality materials and clean, geometrical forms; nearly all are of glass and steel in rectangular shapes. The structure and design evolved according to the individual needs of each commission, and there were three fundamental types of design. One type was the single or grouped high-rise tower, built for apartments for the wealthy, as in his Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago (1948–51), or for city-centre offices, as in his Seagram Building in New York (1954–8, with Philip Johnson) or his Chicago Federal Centre (1964). Another form was the long, low rectangle based upon the earlier Tugendhat House and seen again in the New National Gallery in Berlin (1965–8). Third, there were the grouped schemes when the commission called for buildings of varied purpose on a single, large site. Here Mies van der Rohe achieved a variety and interest in the different shapes and heights of buildings set out in spatial harmony of landscape. Some examples of this type of scheme were housing estates (Lafayette Park Housing Development in Detroit, 1955–6), while others were for educational, commercial or shopping requirements, as at the Toronto Dominion Centre (1963–9).

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